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| SKINNER |
One of the most influential behaviorists was B. F.
Skinner (1904–1990), an American psychologist. He
developed the theory of operant conditioning,
which says people learn their behavior from their
history or past experiences, particularly those experiences
that were repeatedly reinforced. Although
some criticize his theories for not considering the
role that thoughts, feelings, or needs play in motivating
behavior, his work has provided several important
principles still used today. Skinner did not
deny the existence of feelings and needs in motivation;
however, he viewed behavior as only that which
could be observed, studied, and learned or unlearned.
He maintained that if the behavior could be changed
then so too could the accompanying thoughts or feelings.
Changing the behavior was what was important.
The following principles of operant conditioning
described by Skinner (1974) form the basis for behavior
techniques in use today:
1. All behavior is learned.
2. Consequences result from behavior—
broadly speaking, reward and punishment.
3. Behavior that is rewarded with reinforcers
tends to recur.
4. Positive reinforcers that follow a behavior
increase the likelihood that the behavior
will recur.
5. Negative reinforcers that are removed after
a behavior increase the likelihood that the
behavior will recur.
6. Continuous reinforcement (a reward every
time the behavior occurs) is the fastest way
to increase that behavior, but the behavior
will not last long after the reward ceases.
7. Random, intermittent reinforcement (an occasional
reward for the desired behavior) is
slower to produce an increase in behavior,
but the behavior continues after the reward
ceases.
These behavioral principles of rewarding or reinforcing
behaviors are used to help people change
their behavior in a therapy known as behavior modification.
Behavior modification is a method of
attempting to strengthen a desired behavior or response
by reinforcement, either positive or negative.
For example, if the desired behavior is assertiveness,
whenever the client uses assertiveness skills
in a communication group, the group leader provides
positive reinforcement by giving the client attention
and positive feedback. Negative reinforcement
involves removing a stimulus immediately after a
behavior occurs so that the behavior is more likely to
occur again. For example, if a client becomes anxious
when waiting to talk in a group, he or she may volunteer
to speak first to avoid the anxiety.
In a group home setting, operant principles may
come into play in a token economy, a way to involve
residents in performing activities of daily living. A
chart of desired behaviors, such as getting up on time,
taking a shower, and getting dressed, is kept for each
resident. Each day, the chart is marked when the desired
behavior occurs. At the end of the day or the
week, the resident gets a reward or token for each
time each of the desired behaviors occurred. The resident
can redeem the tokens for items such as snacks,
TV time, or a relaxed curfew.
Conditioned responses, such as fears or phobias,
can be treated with behavioral techniques. Systematic
desensitization can be used to help clients overcome
irrational fears and anxiety associated with a
phobia. The client is asked to make a list of situations
involving the phobic object, from the least to the most
anxiety-provoking. The client learns and practices
relaxation techniques to decrease and manage anxiety.
The client then is exposed to the least anxietyprovoking
situation and uses the relaxation techniques
to manage the resulting anxiety. The client is gradually
exposed to more and more anxiety-provoking situations
until he or she can manage the most anxietyprovoking
situation.
Behavioral techniques can be used for a variety
of different problems. In the treatment of anorexia
nervosa, the goal is weight gain. A behavioral contract
between the client and therapist or physician
is initiated when treatment begins. Initially the
client has little unsupervised time and is restricted
to the hospital unit. The contract may specify that
if the client gains a certain amount of weight such
as 0.2 kg/day, in return he or she will get increased
unsupervised time or time off the unit as long as the
weight gain progresses (Agras, 1995).
