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| Spirit possession, demons |
Spirit possession, demons
We leave a sometimes rather frightening area of human experience,
and seem to be out of the frying pan into the fire. In what follows we
examine experiences of and beliefs about demons, evil spirits and
black magic. No one would seriously argue that these are anything
other than terrifying – even if one does not share these beliefs, they
are clearly terrifying for those who have been affected by a horrible
affliction and who believe that it is the result of a curse or evil spirits.
Psychodynamic theorists would say that they represent embodiments
of our deepest terrors (Greenberg & Witztum, 2001). How
widespread are these experiences and beliefs? How often do they
occur in schizophrenia? To what extent is schizophrenia blamed on
evil forces? And – to get into a really involved possibility – might
schizophrenia be caused or exacerbated by beliefs in or experiences
of evil forces? Can some of this knowledge be deployed in treatment?
How widespread are experiences of and beliefs about spirit possession
and demons? And how often do they occur in schizophrenia?
Anthropological sources suggest that beliefs in demons, black magic
and evil spirits as causes of mental illness and distress are common to
most societies (Dein, 1996). They may be less prevalent in Western
countries, but even in Switzerland, Pfeifer (1994) found that more
than one-third of 343 people attending a psychiatric outpatients
clinic thought that their condition might have been caused by evil
spirits, labelling this as occult possession, or bondage. Nearly onethird
of the patients surveyed had sought help through ritual prayers
or exorcism, designed to rid them of the unwelcome spiritual forces.
In Singapore nearly one-third of the women psychiatric patients
interviewed by Kua, Chew & Ko (1993) said that their illness was
caused by a spirit, or by a charm which had been cast upon them.
These patients were all Chinese, mainly Buddhist, Taoist or Christian,
and were mainly suffering from depressive or anxiety disorders,
We leave a sometimes rather frightening area of human experience,
and seem to be out of the frying pan into the fire. In what follows we
examine experiences of and beliefs about demons, evil spirits and
black magic. No one would seriously argue that these are anything
other than terrifying – even if one does not share these beliefs, they
are clearly terrifying for those who have been affected by a horrible
affliction and who believe that it is the result of a curse or evil spirits.
Psychodynamic theorists would say that they represent embodiments
of our deepest terrors (Greenberg & Witztum, 2001). How
widespread are these experiences and beliefs? How often do they
occur in schizophrenia? To what extent is schizophrenia blamed on
evil forces? And – to get into a really involved possibility – might
schizophrenia be caused or exacerbated by beliefs in or experiences
of evil forces? Can some of this knowledge be deployed in treatment?
How widespread are experiences of and beliefs about spirit possession
and demons? And how often do they occur in schizophrenia?
Anthropological sources suggest that beliefs in demons, black magic
and evil spirits as causes of mental illness and distress are common to
most societies (Dein, 1996). They may be less prevalent in Western
countries, but even in Switzerland, Pfeifer (1994) found that more
than one-third of 343 people attending a psychiatric outpatients
clinic thought that their condition might have been caused by evil
spirits, labelling this as occult possession, or bondage. Nearly onethird
of the patients surveyed had sought help through ritual prayers
or exorcism, designed to rid them of the unwelcome spiritual forces.
In Singapore nearly one-third of the women psychiatric patients
interviewed by Kua, Chew & Ko (1993) said that their illness was
caused by a spirit, or by a charm which had been cast upon them.
These patients were all Chinese, mainly Buddhist, Taoist or Christian,
and were mainly suffering from depressive or anxiety disorders,
with only 14% of the sample suffering from psychotic disorders. In
this study notably fewer men (11%) than women (31%) believed
that their illness had been caused by spirits or charms, but similar
proportions of men and women (about one-third) had consulted a
traditional religious/spiritual healer before coming to the hospital
where they took part in Kua et al.’s study. These studies support the
view that beliefs in bad spiritual forces as causes of psychological
disturbance are not uncommon, but they are not exactly normative
in the populations studied.
Of course, the proportions could have been affected by the fact
that in both studies the people interviewed were suffering from psychiatric
illness, and by the fact that they were being interviewed
in an orthodox Western-style psychiatric hospital, by psychiatrists.
It is possible that many believers in spiritual forces as causes of
psychiatric illness may never get to see a psychiatrist, especially
if their condition improved after treatment by a religious/spiritual
healer. Even if they do consult a psychiatrist, they may not wish to
admit these beliefs to the psychiatrist. Srinivasan & Thara (2001)
thought, very credibly, that the causal attributions made about the
causes of schizophrenia by the families of 254 people suffering from
schizophrenia in India were ‘rational and understandable’, given
the lack of exposure to information about schizophrenia. Only 12%
thought that a supernatural cause was involved, and only 5% thought
it the only cause. Most commonly, psychosocial stress was named
as a cause, followed by personality defect and heredity. Similar
beliefs about causal factors in psychiatric illness (schizophrenia and
depression) among non-clinical groups of Christians, Hindu, Jewish
and Muslim women in the UK, were reported by Loewenthal
& Cinnirella (1999). Where spiritual causes were mentioned, these
were often specified as involving lack of faith. Interestingly, religious
factors were less often cited as possible causes for schizophrenia
than for depression in this study – but the women interviewed
were asked for their spontaneous views, and spirits and supernatural
forces figured negligibly in their accounts. As in the Srinivasan &
Thara study, stress and personality factors were most often seen as
important.
Spirit beliefs certainly need not cause psychiatric illness. A striking
example involves a widespread phenomenon – sleep paralysis –
which is common to all cultures, and which is usually interpreted
this study notably fewer men (11%) than women (31%) believed
that their illness had been caused by spirits or charms, but similar
proportions of men and women (about one-third) had consulted a
traditional religious/spiritual healer before coming to the hospital
where they took part in Kua et al.’s study. These studies support the
view that beliefs in bad spiritual forces as causes of psychological
disturbance are not uncommon, but they are not exactly normative
in the populations studied.
Of course, the proportions could have been affected by the fact
that in both studies the people interviewed were suffering from psychiatric
illness, and by the fact that they were being interviewed
in an orthodox Western-style psychiatric hospital, by psychiatrists.
It is possible that many believers in spiritual forces as causes of
psychiatric illness may never get to see a psychiatrist, especially
if their condition improved after treatment by a religious/spiritual
healer. Even if they do consult a psychiatrist, they may not wish to
admit these beliefs to the psychiatrist. Srinivasan & Thara (2001)
thought, very credibly, that the causal attributions made about the
causes of schizophrenia by the families of 254 people suffering from
schizophrenia in India were ‘rational and understandable’, given
the lack of exposure to information about schizophrenia. Only 12%
thought that a supernatural cause was involved, and only 5% thought
it the only cause. Most commonly, psychosocial stress was named
as a cause, followed by personality defect and heredity. Similar
beliefs about causal factors in psychiatric illness (schizophrenia and
depression) among non-clinical groups of Christians, Hindu, Jewish
and Muslim women in the UK, were reported by Loewenthal
& Cinnirella (1999). Where spiritual causes were mentioned, these
were often specified as involving lack of faith. Interestingly, religious
factors were less often cited as possible causes for schizophrenia
than for depression in this study – but the women interviewed
were asked for their spontaneous views, and spirits and supernatural
forces figured negligibly in their accounts. As in the Srinivasan &
Thara study, stress and personality factors were most often seen as
important.
Spirit beliefs certainly need not cause psychiatric illness. A striking
example involves a widespread phenomenon – sleep paralysis –
which is common to all cultures, and which is usually interpreted
as involving experience of spiritual forces or entities, often malign.
Sleep paralysis is distinct from nightmares and night terrors, and
is thought to involve the muscular paralysis characteristic of REM
sleep (Rapid Eye Movement sleep, in which dreaming is common
and voluntary muscles are relaxed) while the individual is in a state
of wakefulness. The experience seems to be universally unpleasant.
The person feels as if they are completely awake, but unable to move their
limbs, or to speak. The person usually sees a form, which is shadowy and indistinct,
moving towards them. Sometimes the person feels short of breath, or
chest tightness, or a weight on the chest. (from Hinton, Hufford & Kirmayer,
2005, p. 6)
Sleep paralysis experiences are as likely in Western cultures as in
others. They are seldom disclosed to others for fear that the individual
who had such an experience will be thought mad (Hufford,
2005). They are almost always interpreted as involving the presence
of demons, evil forces, witches and the like.
‘Suddenly I felt something come into the room and stay close to my bed.
It remained only a minute or two. I did not recognize it by any ordinary
sense, and yet there was a horrible “sensation” connected with it. It stirred
something more at the roots of my being than any ordinary perception . . .
a very large tearing vital pain spreading chiefly over chest, but within the
organism . . . I was conscious of its departure as of its coming; an almost
instantaneously swift going through the door, and the horrible “sensation”
disappeared.’ (from James, 1902, quoted by Hufford, 2005, p. 15)
J was awakened at about 3.30 am by the sound of the apartment door slamming
shut. J knew that this was impossible. She always locks and bolts the
door before going to sleep. She was aware of a presence, but was afraid to
move her head and look because she was terrified of the repercussions if ‘it’
knew she was awake. At one point she did manage to peer from one eye and
saw a sepia-coloured blob, about four feet high, hovering over the feet of a
friend who was sleeping in the apartment. Then ‘it’ moved towards her and
she was conscious of a heavy weight moving from her shoulder to her feet, like
a repulsive caress, though not sexual in nature. Then the thing moved back
to her friend. After a total period of what seemed like nearly an hour, she was
aware that the thing was gone, and J felt able to move. She could see that her
friend was still safely asleep. She was unable to fall asleep for the rest of the
night. (described in Hufford, 2005)
Sleep paralysis is distinct from nightmares and night terrors, and
is thought to involve the muscular paralysis characteristic of REM
sleep (Rapid Eye Movement sleep, in which dreaming is common
and voluntary muscles are relaxed) while the individual is in a state
of wakefulness. The experience seems to be universally unpleasant.
The person feels as if they are completely awake, but unable to move their
limbs, or to speak. The person usually sees a form, which is shadowy and indistinct,
moving towards them. Sometimes the person feels short of breath, or
chest tightness, or a weight on the chest. (from Hinton, Hufford & Kirmayer,
2005, p. 6)
Sleep paralysis experiences are as likely in Western cultures as in
others. They are seldom disclosed to others for fear that the individual
who had such an experience will be thought mad (Hufford,
2005). They are almost always interpreted as involving the presence
of demons, evil forces, witches and the like.
‘Suddenly I felt something come into the room and stay close to my bed.
It remained only a minute or two. I did not recognize it by any ordinary
sense, and yet there was a horrible “sensation” connected with it. It stirred
something more at the roots of my being than any ordinary perception . . .
a very large tearing vital pain spreading chiefly over chest, but within the
organism . . . I was conscious of its departure as of its coming; an almost
instantaneously swift going through the door, and the horrible “sensation”
disappeared.’ (from James, 1902, quoted by Hufford, 2005, p. 15)
J was awakened at about 3.30 am by the sound of the apartment door slamming
shut. J knew that this was impossible. She always locks and bolts the
door before going to sleep. She was aware of a presence, but was afraid to
move her head and look because she was terrified of the repercussions if ‘it’
knew she was awake. At one point she did manage to peer from one eye and
saw a sepia-coloured blob, about four feet high, hovering over the feet of a
friend who was sleeping in the apartment. Then ‘it’ moved towards her and
she was conscious of a heavy weight moving from her shoulder to her feet, like
a repulsive caress, though not sexual in nature. Then the thing moved back
to her friend. After a total period of what seemed like nearly an hour, she was
aware that the thing was gone, and J felt able to move. She could see that her
friend was still safely asleep. She was unable to fall asleep for the rest of the
night. (described in Hufford, 2005)
